Class Meetings: Monday, 3:00-5:40 p.m. at Clemens 221/736A).
Office Hours: Tuesday: 2:00-4:00 p.m. at 737 Clemens Hall North Campus.
Phone: 645-2082 Ext. 1125
A. Purpose and Format of Course:
This course is designed to examine the scope and dynamics of ancient African states and societies before the onset of the slave trade and colonialism. It will probe the impact of two epochal crises that have determined Africa's modern destiny and the various ways ancient African societies and civilizations responded to them: the desiccation of the Sahara and the Arab invasion and occupation of North Africa. It will also examine the rise of various state formations in Africa, including such successful states as Egypt, Ethiopia and Benin but also failed forms of state formation, such as Zimbabwe. The course will assess the nature of African history and civilization in terms of theories of civilization, particularly with reference to Arnold Toynbee's theory of the rise and fall of civilizations. The subject matter of the course will be covered in seminars, including lectures by the instructor.
B. Evaluation of Students' Performances and Basis of Grading:
Each graduate student enrolled in this course is required to make a written class presentation on an assigned topic and to complete a substantial paper on a subject, chosen in consultation with the instructor, at the end of the semester. In addition, some credit will be given for participation in class discussions. Grades will be awarded on the basis of students' performances in these assignments.
C. Texts and Readings:
Articles and books will be assigned on a specified topic for each week. Readings will include the following texts:
Leo Africanus. c. 1492 - c. 1550. [1896] The History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things Therein Contained. New York: Hakluyt Society.
J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds. 1985. The Historical Atlas of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
J. A. Allan, ed. 1981. The Sahara, Ecological Change and Early Economic History. Outwell, Cambridgeshire: Middle East & North African Studies Press.
Bernal, Martin. 1991. Black Athena: Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. Volume II: The Archeological and Documentary Evidence. New Brunscwick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
Graham Connah. 1981. Three Thousand Years in Africa: Man and his environment in the Lake Chad region of Nigeria. New York: Cambridge University Press
Graham Connah. 1987. African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa: an Archaeological Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Basil Davidson. 59. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little, Brown.
Basil Davidson. 1966. African Kingdoms. New York: Time Inc.
Basil Davidson. 1991. Africa Civilization Revisited. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press.
Diop, Cheik Anta. 1955[1974]. The African Origin of Civilization, Myth or Reality. Edited and Translated by Mercer Cook. Chicago: Lawrence Hills Books.
Diop, Cheik Anta. 1981[1991]. Civilization or Barbarism; An Authentic Anthropology. Chicago: Lawrence Hills Books.
Jacob U. Egharevba. 1973. Concise Lives of the Famous Iyases of Benin. Nendelin: Kraus Reprint.
J. D. Fage and R.A. Oliver, eds., Papers in African Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. Chapters 8 & 9.
Peter S. Garlake. 1973. Great Zimbabwe. London: Thomas and Hudson.
Thomas A. Hale. 1990. Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: A Narrative Interpretation of the Songhay Empire. Gainsville: Center for African Studies.
Robert L. Hoover, The Origins and Initial Migrations of the Bantu.
Johnston, H. A. S. 1967. The Fulani Empire of Sokoto. London: Oxford University Press.
Murray Last. 1967. The Sokoto Caliphate. New York: Humanities Press.
Robin Law. 1977. The Oyo Empire, c. 1600-1836. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
R. E. Leakey and Roger Lewin. 1978. People of the Lake. New York: Anchor Press.
Nehemia Levtzion. 1973. Ancient Ghana and Mali.
Roger Lewin. 1988. In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books.
H. T. Norris. 1986. The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara. Harlow, Essex: Longman.
Roland Oliver, ed., 1928. The Dawn of African History. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
H. R. Palmer, ed. 1928. Sudanese Memoirs. Volume III.
Douglas Porch. 1985. The Conquest of the Sahara. London: Cape.
E. W. N. Wallows. 1984. The Mystery of the Great Zimbabwe: A New Solution. New York: Norton.
D. Course Outline:
1st Week -- August 26-30: The Nature of African History
Perspectives on African history. European imperialism and perspectives on African history. Egypt and African history: the Martin Bernal thesis on classical and Aryan models of the origins of Greek civilization. Stages of African history: ancient Africa; European incursions into African history: slave trade and colonialism; post-colonial Africa. Basil Davidson=s time-chart of African civilizations.
Readings:
Martin Bernal, Black Athena, Vol. II: Introduction
Basil Davidson, African Civilization Revisited. Introduction
Cheik Anta Diop. The African Origin of Civilization, Myth or Reality.
Cheik Anta Diop. Civilization or Barbarism; An Authentic Anthropology.
Peter Ekeh, AEuropean Imperialism and the Ibadan School of History.@
2nd Week --September 2-6: No Classes: Labor Day Observed
3rd Week --September 9-13: The Beginnings of Mankind in Africa
The search for the beginnings of mankind. Religious interpretations of man's origins. The scientific study of man's origins. The beginnings of mankind in Africa. Homo erectus and homo sapiens in Africa. The migration of man outside Africa.
Readings:
Richard Leakey, "African Origins: A review of the record." Pp.25-44 in Charles L. Hamrum, ed., Darwin's Legacy. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
Roger Lewin, In the Age of Mankind, pp. 112-133.
Leakey and Lewin, People of the Lake.
J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds. The Historical Atlas of Africa. P. 7.
4th Week --September 16-20: Ancient Africa and Mediterranean Civilizations
The scope of Mediterranean civilizations: Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Egypt and ancient Africa. Greece and Rome and ancient Africa. Rome's wars against Hannibal. Africa and the grain needs of the Roman Empire. Controversies on the Bernal thesis on Egyptian and African origins of Greek civilization
Readings:
J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds. 1985. The Historical Atlas of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bernal, Martin. 1991. Black Athena: Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. Volume II: The Archeological and Documentary Evidence.
Articles in Arethusa Special issue Fall 1989 (on reserve).
Molly Myerowitz Levine, AReview Article: The use and Abuse of Black Athena.@ The American Historical Review. 97 (1992, 2): 440-460
Robert L. Pounder, AReview Article: Black Athena 2: History without Rules.@ The American Historical Review. 97 (1992, 2): 461-464
5th Week -- September 23-27: Civilizations of the Sahara in Ancient Africa
The ecology of the Sahara during the European Ice Age. Egypt as a Saharan civilization. Agriculture and the domestication of animals in the Sahara. Trade and mining in the Sahara. Rivers and lakes in sub-Saharan Africa.
Readings:
J. A. Allan, ed. The Sahara, Ecological Change and Early Economic History.
6th Week -- September 30 - October 4: The Desiccation of the Sahara
The ending of the European Ice Age and decreasing moisture in the Sahara. The desiccation of the Sahara. The agricultural and population consequences of the Sahara's desiccation. Routes of escape of Saharan peoples from their desiccating homeland. Impact of migrating Saharans on neighboring areas.
Readings:
J. A. Allan, ed. The Sahara, Ecological Change and Early Economic History.
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 43-58.
J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds. The Historical Atlas of Africa. Pp. 13-14, 32.
7th Week - October 7-11: The Civilizations of the Middle Nile
The Nile valley and human civilization. Urban developments before 1500 B.C. in the middle Nile valley. The rise of Meroe and Kush. The appropriation of Kush by nomadic Nubians. The states of Meroe and Nubia. Early Christianity in Nubia. The conflict between Christianity and Islam in ancient Africa.
Readings:
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, Chapter 3.
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 33-42.
8th Week -- October 14-18: Christianity in Ancient Africa
Africa and the Old Testament. Branches of early Christianity: Rome, Eastern Christianity, and the Coptic Church. Christianity in Nubia, Axum, and Ethiopia. St. Augustine and African Christianity. Isolation of Christian Ethiopia.
Readings:
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, Chapter 4.
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 129-142.
Donald N. Levine, Greater Ethiopia. University of Chicago Press 1974. Chapters 1 & 2.
9th Week -- October 21-25: Arab Invasion and Occupation of North Africa
The rise of Islam in the 7th century. Arab military conquest of North Africa. Bedouin nomadic occupation of North Africa. The Arab displacement of the native Berbers and other ethnic groups in the Sahara in the 7th to 11th centuries. The spread of Islam along the Sahara.
Readings:
J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds. The Historical Atlas of Africa. Pp. 26-27.
H. T. Norris. 1986. The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara. Harlow, Essex: Longman.
Douglas Porch. 1985. The Conquest of the Sahara. London: Cape.
10th Week -- October 28 - November 1: The Bantu Migration Hypothesis
The term "Bantu.@ The common linguistic and cultural features of human existence in central and southern Africa. The spread of Bantu linguistic and cultural patterns towards southern Africa. The link between the desiccation of the Sahara and the Arab invasion and occupation and the push to migrate southward. The Bantu migration hypothesis.
Readings:
J. D. Fage and R.A. Oliver, eds. Papers in African Prehistory.
Robert L. Hoover, The Origins and Initial Migrations of the Bantu.
11th Week -- November 4-8: Civilizations of The Western Sudan
The states of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The Saharan complex and the impact of Islam on these states. Cultural achievements: the University of Timbucktu. Morocco and the fall of Songhai. Consequences of Songhai's collapse.
Readings:
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, Chapter 5.
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 79-99.
John D. Fage, "Some Thoughts on State-Formation in the Western Sudan Before the Seventeenth Century." Pp. 19-34 in Jefrey Butler, ed., Boston University Papers in African History.
S. M. Cissoko, "The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century." Pp. 187-210 in D. T. Niane, ed., General History of Africa Vol. IV.
Nehemia Levtzion. 1973. Ancient Ghana and Mali.
12th Week -- November 11-15: The Civilizations of the Central Sudan
The ecology of the Central Sudan: The impact of the Sahara and the dispersal of its populations; the Lake Chad region. The state of El-Kanem and Bornu. The Hausa states. The influence of Songhai in the Central Sudan. Islam and the rise of Fulani hegemonies in the Central Sudan.
Readings:
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, Chapter 5.
Graham Connah, Three Thousand Years in Africa.
H. R. Palmer, ed. 1928. "The Kano Chronicle" in Sudanese Memoirs. Volume III. Pp. 92-132
13th Week --November 18: The Rise of the Fulani Empires
The Moroccan sacking of the Songhai Empire. The political vacuum in the Western and Central Sudan following Songhai's fall. The rise of the Fulani Empire.
Readings:
Last, Murray. 1967. The Sokoto Caliphate. New York: Humanities Press. Johnston, H. A. S. 1967. The Fulani Empire of Sokoto. London: Oxford University Press.
14th Week -- December 2-6: West African Forest Civilizations
The ecological features of West Africa. Population density. A flourish of West African states: Oyo; Benin City; Dahomey.
Readings:
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 101-120.
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, Chapter 6.
Peter Ekeh, "Benin and Thebes: Elementary Forms of Civilization." Pp. 65-93 in Werner Muensterberger, Aaron H. Esman and L. Bryce Boyer, eds., The Psychoanalytic Study of Society. Vol. VIII. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976.
P. Morton-Williams, "The Yoruba Ogboni Cult in Oyo." Africa, 30:362-374.
Jacob Egharevba, A Short History of Benin.
15th Week -- December 9: Urban and State Developments in the East African Coast & the Great Zimbabwe
East Africa and Indian Ocean. Swahili Culture in 4th century A.D. Islam in the East Coast and in the hinterland. Indigenous cultures of East and West Africa compared. The Zimbabwe Plateau. The nature of Zimbabwe urban development. Its reconstruction: why it is so difficult. Great Zimbabwe and modern southern Africa.
Readings:
Graham Connah, African Civilizations, chapter 7 & 8.
Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms, pp. 178-181.
Roland Oliver, ed., The Dawn of African History. London: Oxford Univ. Press, Chapter 8: "The Riddle of Zimbabwe."
E. W. N. Wallows. 1984. The Mystery of the Great Zimbabwe: A New Solution. New York: Norton.
16th Week -- December 16-19: Examinations
Term paper is due this week.
TOPICS FOR CLASS DISCUSSIONS AND POSSIBLE TERM PAPERS
I. The Nature and Validity of African History.
For quite some time, leading Western historians hesitated to allow that Africa had history. African nationalist historians and writers, as well as liberal Western scholars, have reacted rather angrily to claims that there cannot be African history. Consider the following statements on this topic:
b) Stanley Diamond: "Africa is the locus of predominantly unwritten, deeply self-conscious human experiences, the ensemble of which constitutes the only authentic definition of history. Even so, documents exist; in the Western Sudan, for example, the Kano chronicle provides information about ten centuries old . . . But Trevor-Roper is, in a sense that he will not admit, perfectly correct: most men, whether Africans, medieval Europeans, or working-class Englishmen, have lived in the "darkness" to which they have been confined by those who record and rationalize the career of civilization. For their histories, in Africa, for example, were of no use to the European historian -- not being reified, they could not be endlessly mined for the sake of either the academic specialist or the establishment he represented. When Trevor-Roper claims, therefore, that Africa has no history, he means that Africa has no history that he can use" (Stanley Diamond, In Search of the Primitive. A Critique of Civilization New Brunswick: Transaction Books. 1974, page 3).
d) Okot p'Bitek: "One of the most perplexing and amazing phenomena of Western scholarship is its almost morbid fascination and preoccupation with the `primitive', and the hostile and arrogant language of the philosophers, historians, theologians, and anthropologists. Like the ogres of the tales of northern Uganda, unprovoked, Western scholars seek out peoples living in peace, and heap insults on their heads." (Okot p'Bitek, African Religions in Western Scholarship, Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1970, page 20).
There have been various viewpoints on the nature of African history and civilization. Beginning with the European Age of Imperialism, Egypt has either been appropriated by the West as a non-African civilization or marginalized as a source of Greek civilization which is regarded as Western civilization's seed society. Anta Cheikh Diop has, on the other hand, claimed Egypt as the premier source of African history and civilization. From Diop's scholarship has developed the so-called Afrocentricity movement in African American studies. Consider the following fragments:
Anta Cheikh Diop: "Ancient Egypt was a Negro civilization. The history of Black Africa will remain suspended in air and cannot be written correctly until African historians dare to connect it with the history of Egypt . . . The African historian who evades the problem of Egypt is neither modest nor objective, nor unruffled; he is ignorant, cowardly and neurotic" (Anta Cheikh Diop, 1955[1974]. The African Origin of Civilization, Myth or Reality. Edited and Translated by Mercer Cook. Chicago: Lawrence Hills Books, page xiv).